Cytochromes

The cytochromes (from the Greek cytos, meaning “cell”, and chroma, meaning “color”) were first identified in the 1920s by spectroscopic studies of cell extracts. Based on the wavelength of the maximum absorption in the visible spectrum, they were classified as cytochromes a (with the longest wavelength), cytochromes b (intermediate wavelength), and cytochromes c (shortest wavelength). It quickly became apparent that there was a correlation between their spectroscopic properties and other physical properties. For examples, cytochromes c are generally small, soluble proteins with a reduction potential of about +0.25 V, whereas cytochromes b are larger, less-soluble proteins with reduction potentials of about 0 V.

All cytochromes contain iron, and the iron atom in all cytochromes is coordinated by a planar array of four nitrogen atoms provided by a cyclic tetradentate ligand called a porphyrin. The iron–porphyrin unit is called a heme group. The structures of a typical porphyrin (protoporphyrin IX) and its iron complex (protoheme) are shown here. In addition to the four nitrogen atoms of the porphyrin, the iron in a cytochrome is usually bonded to two additional ligands provided by the protein, as shown in Figure 1.1.

In contrast to the blue copper proteins, two electron configurations are possible for both the oxidized and reduced forms of a cytochrome, and this has significant structural consequences. Thus Fe²⁺ is d⁶ and can be either high spin (with four unpaired electrons) or low spin (with no unpaired electrons). Similarly, Fe³⁺ is d⁵ and can also be high spin (with five unpaired electrons) or low spin (with one unpaired electron). In low-spin heme complexes, both the Fe²⁺ and the Fe³⁺ ions are small enough to fit into the “hole” in the center of the porphyrin; hence the iron atom lies almost exactly in the plane of the four porphyrin nitrogen atoms in both cases. Because cytochromes b and c are low spin in both their oxidized and reduced forms, the structures of the oxidized and reduced cytochromes are essentially identical. Hence minimal structural changes occur after oxidation or reduction, which makes electron transfer to or from the heme very rapid.