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موافق

Grammar

Tenses

Present

Present Simple

Present Continuous

Present Perfect

Present Perfect Continuous

Past

Past Continuous

Past Perfect

Past Perfect Continuous

Past Simple

Future

Future Simple

Future Continuous

Future Perfect

Future Perfect Continuous

Passive and Active

Parts Of Speech

Nouns

Countable and uncountable nouns

Verbal nouns

Singular and Plural nouns

Proper nouns

Nouns gender

Nouns definition

Concrete nouns

Abstract nouns

Common nouns

Collective nouns

Definition Of Nouns

Verbs

Stative and dynamic verbs

Finite and nonfinite verbs

To be verbs

Transitive and intransitive verbs

Auxiliary verbs

Modal verbs

Regular and irregular verbs

Action verbs

Adverbs

Relative adverbs

Interrogative adverbs

Adverbs of time

Adverbs of place

Adverbs of reason

Adverbs of quantity

Adverbs of manner

Adverbs of frequency

Adverbs of affirmation

Adjectives

Quantitative adjective

Proper adjective

Possessive adjective

Numeral adjective

Interrogative adjective

Distributive adjective

Descriptive adjective

Demonstrative adjective

Pronouns

Subject pronoun

Relative pronoun

Reflexive pronoun

Reciprocal pronoun

Possessive pronoun

Personal pronoun

Interrogative pronoun

Indefinite pronoun

Emphatic pronoun

Distributive pronoun

Demonstrative pronoun

Pre Position

Preposition by function

Time preposition

Reason preposition

Possession preposition

Place preposition

Phrases preposition

Origin preposition

Measure preposition

Direction preposition

Contrast preposition

Agent preposition

Preposition by construction

Simple preposition

Phrase preposition

Double preposition

Compound preposition

Conjunctions

Subordinating conjunction

Correlative conjunction

Coordinating conjunction

Conjunctive adverbs

Interjections

Express calling interjection

Grammar Rules

Preference

Requests and offers

wishes

Be used to

Some and any

Could have done

Describing people

Giving advices

Possession

Comparative and superlative

Giving Reason

Making Suggestions

Apologizing

Forming questions

Since and for

Directions

Obligation

Adverbials

invitation

Articles

Imaginary condition

Zero conditional

First conditional

Second conditional

Third conditional

Reported speech

Linguistics

Phonetics

Phonology

Semantics

Pragmatics

Linguistics fields

Syntax

Morphology

Semantics

pragmatics

History

Writing

Grammar

literature

Reading Comprehension

Elementary

Intermediate

Advanced

English Language : Linguistics : Morphology :

Conclusion: words versus lexical items

المؤلف:  Andrew Carstairs-McCarthy

المصدر:  An Introduction To English Morphology

الجزء والصفحة:  12-1

2024-01-30

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Conclusion: words versus lexical items

We pointed out that we tend to think of words as possessing two characteristics: 1. they have meanings that are unpredictable  and so must be listed in dictionaries, and 2. they are the building-blocks for words and phrases. I have argued that, although this may be broadly true, the two characteristics do not always go together. For this reason, it will be helpful to have distinct terms for items with each of the two characteristics. Let us use lexical item for items with characteristic 1., and reserve word for items with characteristic 2. (Admittedly, characteristic 2. is formulated quite vaguely; however, making the formulation more precise belongs not to a book on word-formation but to a book on syntax.).

 

Does this show that the traditional view of words as things that are (or should be) listed in dictionaries is entirely wrong? Not really. I have already pointed out that, although many words have meanings that are predictable, there is nevertheless a tendency for these meanings to lose motivation over time. Thus a word which does not start out as a lexical item may in due course become one. Conversely, many of the lexical items that are phrases or sentences (idioms or proverbs) have meanings which can be seen as metaphorical extensions of a literal meaning; so to that extent their interpretation remains motivated.

 

Given that there is not a perfect match between words and lexical items, which should dictionaries list? Or should they list both? The practice of most dictionaries reflects a compromise. Some are more generous than others in listing idioms; some are more generous than others in listing words with entirely predictable meanings. For readers, the important thing is to be aware that there are two distinct kinds of item that a dictionary may seek to list, and that this implicit conflict may help to explain apparently puzzling decisions that dictionary editors make about what to include and what to leave out.