Adverbs

Whereas an adjective can modify a noun (or occur as copula complement), an adverb has the potential for a wide range of functions. These are, in outline:

(a)   Modifying a complete clause or sentence—sentential function.

(b)   Modifying a verb (plus object, if it has one)—manner function.

(c)   Modifying a complete noun phrase—NP (modifying) function.

(d)   Modifying an adjective—adjectival (modifying) function.

(e)   Modifying another adverb—adverbial modifying function.

These can be illustrated in the following monoclausal sentence (chosen because it has a two-word auxiliary and an object NP):

(1) She had been arranging the beautiful flowers

(a) We can add also in sentential function, following the first word of the auxiliary (adverbs quoted within a sentence or phrase are underlined):

(2a) She had also been arranging the beautiful flowers

Adverbs which modify a complete sentence have a wide range of meanings, including reference to time (for instance, yesterday), place (outside), the appropriateness or mode or likelihood of an activity (correctly, deliberately, regretfully, probably), in addition to also, almost, even and others.

(b) Or we can add a manner adverb, such as attractively. This may immediately precede (or it may follow) the verb-plus-object:

(2b) She had been attractively arranging the beautiful flowers

A manner adverb may typically provide a response to a question with how. For example, (2b) could answer How has she been arranging the beautiful flowers? Manner adverbs describe the way in which the activity is performed (for example, easily, well), or the degree to which it was done (quite, precisely).

(c) An adverb such as only may modify an NP, preceding an article at the beginning of the NP, as in:

(2c) She had been arranging [only the beautiful flowers]

NP-modifying adverbs provide a sort of qualification (for example, just, even).

(d) The fourth possibility is for an adverb to modify an adjective, as truly does in:

(2d) She had been arranging the truly beautiful flowers

Adverbs which modify an adjective typically indicate the degree or status of a property (for example, rather, slightly, very, appropriately).

(e) Finally, there are a number of adverbs which may modify another adverb, as quite modifies attractively in:

(2e) She had been quite attractively arranging the beautiful flowers

A wide range of adjectives can modify another adverb, including specifying degree (for example, somewhat, almost).

There may be an adverb in more than one of these five functions. Indeed, the sentence

(2f) She had also been quite attractively arranging only the truly beautiful flowers

is perfectly acceptable (if a trifle florid).

A clause may generally include only one adverb in manner function— although there can be a complex manner adverb involving a coordination of simple manner adverbs, as in He did it easily and expertly but there can be a string of adverbs in sentential function; for example:

(3) She had also deliberately just been arranging the beautiful flowers

Some adverbs have a single function. For example, again may only modify a clause or a sentence. Others can have two or more. Attractively may have manner function, or it can modify an adjective, as in an attractively slim woman. And only has functions (a) and (c–e):

(4a) She had only been arranging the beautiful flowers (she hadn’t been doing anything else)

(4c) She had been arranging only the beautiful flowers (not the windblown ones)

(4d) She had been arranging the only beautiful flowers (there were just a few of them)

(4e) She had been only attractively arranging the beautiful flowers (she hadn’t done anything that was not highly aesthetic)

Really may be the only adverb to show all five functions (but note that modifying an NP, (c), is possible only when the NP is in copula complement function)

(5a) She had really been arranging the beautiful flowers (we thought she was just saying she had done it, but she actually had arranged them)

(5b) She had been really arranging the beautiful flowers (not just popping them into vases any old how)

(5c) She had been [really a great beauty] in her day

(5d) She had been arranging the really beautiful flowers (but not the less beautiful ones)

(5e) She had been really attractively arranging the beautiful flowers (no one can deny that she has great skill at this task)

(Truly has similar properties to really, but is much less felicitous in a number of contexts which are natural with really.)

This is an outline of the functional possibilities for adverbs in English. Some other functions are simply variants of one of the basic ones. For example, an adverb can precede a preposition followed by an NP; but the possibilities are the same as for an NP with no preposition. Compare:

And an adverb may modify a complement clause. This again shows the same possibilities as for modification of an NP. Compare only modifying an NP (in O function) in

(6a) I want [only the top job]

with only modifying a THAT complement clause, in (6b), or a (FOR) TO complement clause, in (6c) (both in O function) as in:

(6b) I want [only that Mary should get the top job]

(6c) I want [only for Mary to get the top job]

Every adverb can function either as sentence modifier or in manner function (modifying verb-plus-object) or both; this is taken as the defining property for ‘what is an adverb’ in English. Some may also modify an NP and/or an adjective and/or an adverb.