Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Simple
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Grammar Rules
Passive and Active
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
Phonetics and Phonology
Semiotics
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Teaching Methods
Teaching Strategies
Assessment
ORTHOGRAPHY
المؤلف:
John Field
المصدر:
Psycholinguistics
الجزء والصفحة:
P196
2025-09-22
51
+
-
20
ORTHOGRAPHY
The spelling system of a language. It is important to distinguish between a language’s orthography, its writing system (employing letters, syllables or whole-word characters) and its script (the character shapes it uses as in ‘Arabic script’, ‘Greek script’).
Alphabetic orthographies vary considerably. Some, such as Arabic, represent consonants but do not always display vowels. Orthographies can also be characterised according to how close the match is between graphemes (units of writing) and phonemes. Spanish, for example, provides an example of a transparent orthography, with a one-to-one relationship between written forms and sounds. All its words can be interpreted using consistent grapheme-phoneme correspondence (GPC) rules. English provides an example of an opaque orthography, because it contains a mixture of:
words that can be spelt using GPC rules (e.g. clinic, practising);
words with the weak vowel / ə / represented by any one of the five vowels;
words that can be spelt by analogy with other words (e.g. light, rough);
words that are unique in their spellings (e.g. yacht, buoy) and thus demand the kind of whole-word processing by an English writer that we find in a logographic system like Chinese.
Children acquiring transparent orthographies such as Spanish make faster initial progress than those acquiring opaque ones such as English. There are even different patterns of dyslexia, with readers of transparent orthographies manifesting problems of speed while English dyslexics have problems of both speed and accuracy. Despite this, adult Spanish readers appear to employ whole-word processing as well as GPC rules. This finding accords with an interactive model of reading, in which information is processed at several levels simultaneously (feature, letter, letter order, word).
See also: Grapheme-phoneme correspondence rule, Graphotactic rules, Writing system
Further reading: Coulmas (1989); Harris and Coltheart (1986); Rayner and Pollatsek (1989: Chap. 2)
الاكثر قراءة في Linguistics fields
اخر الاخبار
اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة
الآخبار الصحية
مواضيع ذات صلة
"المهمة".. إصدار قصصي يوثّق القصص الفائزة في مسابقة فتوى الدفاع المقدسة للقصة القصيرة
(نوافذ).. إصدار أدبي يوثق القصص الفائزة في مسابقة الإمام العسكري (عليه السلام)
قسم الشؤون الفكرية يصدر مجموعة قصصية بعنوان (قلوب بلا مأوى)
