An Introduction to Applied Linguistics
APPLIED FIELDS
The doubt as to its role and uncertainty as to its status that trouble applied linguistics, along with its uneasy relationship with linguistics (theoretical or general), may seem uniquely distressing to applied linguists but they are not uncommon among the applied disciplines. Of the lack of status there is no doubt. Even the utility of applied disciplines is called into account. The famous scientist T. H. Huxley (known as Darwin’s Bulldog) asserted before the Cowper Commission of 1892 that ‘the primary business of the universities is with pure knowledge and pure art-independent of all application to practice; with progress in culture not with increase in wealth’ (Bibby 1956: 377).
It seems that ‘applied’ disciplines are still struggling for academic status. We see this in an array of applied disciplines, for example, mathematics, physics, philosophy, sociology, engineering and anthropology. In each case some criterion is appealed to as making the distinction between the pure and the applied. In mathematics it is proof. Pure mathematics, according to those who profess it, is what is proved. Applied physics is marked by technological or practical use. Applied sociology relates to the world of work outside academia. Applied engineering requires input from a range of disciplines outside engineering. Applied anthropology makes a similar point. It is defined as the elucidation of practical problems in, for example, the fields of public health, clinical medicine and psychiatry (Barnard and Spencer 1996: 359). It has its roots, Barnard and Spencer tell us, ‘in work on behalf of colonial administrations but is now firmly established in contexts as diverse as development agencies, health education and social work, as well as work for private sector corporations’ (ibid: 595–6).
Both applied engineering and applied anthropology, then, make the case for their applied discipline in terms of the target. Whether these varied ‘applied’ targets have an influence on the training/education that is given is unclear but it seems reasonable to assume there is no differentiation, certainly not at the undergraduate level. The ‘source’, that is the training provided, is the same. Where there is differentiation is at the postgraduate level. A general undergraduate training/education is followed by a range of specialisms. This assumes that the different specialisms can all draw equally on the same preparation. To an extent, this explains the proliferation in British universities of taught one-year Master’s degrees which can provide the variety of specialist inputs (including in applied linguistics).
Applied linguistics began life in the 1950s as a postgraduate qualification. Its initial target, largely language teaching, has always been practical, policy-oriented. Its preparation at postgraduate level has been multidisciplinary and, as in mathematics, there is a continuing tension between pure (general, theoretical) linguistics and applied linguistics. It does not expect its conclusions to be buttressed with certainty (and it is unclear whether theoretical linguistics or any other social science can expect that, either). For applied linguistics, there is no finality: the problems such as how to assess language proficiency, what is the optimum age to begin a second language, what distinguishes native and non-native speakers, how we can treat memory loss, these problems may find local and temporary solutions but the problems recur. No doubt, once again, the same may be said of theoretical linguistics: whether all grammars are fundamentally one grammar; what the relation is between the sign and the referent; answers are partial, never final – the problems remain.
For the other applied subjects we have mentioned, it appears that those wishing for an applied outcome are normally expected to have followed the general undergraduate program. This cannot be expected in applied linguistics, for two reasons. First, because in spite of the availability of undergraduate courses in general or theoretical linguistics (or often just linguistics), it is normal to admit students to an applied linguistics postgraduate course without that training. A degree is required but often there is flexibility as to its area of study. The second reason, which probably impacts on the first, is the centrality to applied linguistics of the English language and of teaching English. The majority of entrants to an applied linguistics course will still have first-hand experience of TEFL and that means that students, both native and non-native English speakers, bring to their applied linguistics degree course their awareness and understanding of the English language and their proficiency in it. Nowadays, the insistence on previous practical language teaching experience may well be relaxed in the case of a student who has other relevant experience, in journalism, publishing, translating and so on. But in the majority of cases, experience of teaching English or another language or both is still the norm.
