Grammar
Tenses
Present
Present Simple
Present Continuous
Present Perfect
Present Perfect Continuous
Past
Past Simple
Past Continuous
Past Perfect
Past Perfect Continuous
Future
Future Simple
Future Continuous
Future Perfect
Future Perfect Continuous
Parts Of Speech
Nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Singular and Plural nouns
Proper nouns
Nouns gender
Nouns definition
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Common nouns
Collective nouns
Definition Of Nouns
Animate and Inanimate nouns
Nouns
Verbs
Stative and dynamic verbs
Finite and nonfinite verbs
To be verbs
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Auxiliary verbs
Modal verbs
Regular and irregular verbs
Action verbs
Verbs
Adverbs
Relative adverbs
Interrogative adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of reason
Adverbs of quantity
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of affirmation
Adverbs
Adjectives
Quantitative adjective
Proper adjective
Possessive adjective
Numeral adjective
Interrogative adjective
Distributive adjective
Descriptive adjective
Demonstrative adjective
Pronouns
Subject pronoun
Relative pronoun
Reflexive pronoun
Reciprocal pronoun
Possessive pronoun
Personal pronoun
Interrogative pronoun
Indefinite pronoun
Emphatic pronoun
Distributive pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun
Pronouns
Pre Position
Preposition by function
Time preposition
Reason preposition
Possession preposition
Place preposition
Phrases preposition
Origin preposition
Measure preposition
Direction preposition
Contrast preposition
Agent preposition
Preposition by construction
Simple preposition
Phrase preposition
Double preposition
Compound preposition
prepositions
Conjunctions
Subordinating conjunction
Correlative conjunction
Coordinating conjunction
Conjunctive adverbs
conjunctions
Interjections
Express calling interjection
Phrases
Sentences
Grammar Rules
Passive and Active
Preference
Requests and offers
wishes
Be used to
Some and any
Could have done
Describing people
Giving advices
Possession
Comparative and superlative
Giving Reason
Making Suggestions
Apologizing
Forming questions
Since and for
Directions
Obligation
Adverbials
invitation
Articles
Imaginary condition
Zero conditional
First conditional
Second conditional
Third conditional
Reported speech
Demonstratives
Determiners
Linguistics
Phonetics
Phonology
Linguistics fields
Syntax
Morphology
Semantics
pragmatics
History
Writing
Grammar
Phonetics and Phonology
Semiotics
Reading Comprehension
Elementary
Intermediate
Advanced
Teaching Methods
Teaching Strategies
Assessment
Transformations
المؤلف:
David Hornsby
المصدر:
Linguistics A complete introduction
الجزء والصفحة:
166-8
2023-12-25
1190
+
-
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Transformations
In early generative models, constructions in deep structure can be transformed in surface structure. For example, deep structure active sentences become passive in surface structure via the passivization transformation.
For all its theoretical attractions, a major problem with the transformational component of the model was that it was largely unconstrained. Transformations could not introduce new meaning-bearing elements, but they could move constituents (for example both NP2 and NP1 move in the passivization transformation), add elements (by) or, on occasions, delete them. In other words, they could do practically anything, which sat awkwardly in the context of a research programme aiming to capture the universal principles of grammar acquisition, which are purportedly simple and restricted in number. Later models have therefore set out to specify the constraints on transformations.
Transformations initially gave way to movement rules, and the label ‘Transformational-generative grammar’ (or ‘TG’) of the 1970s had become simply ‘Generative grammar’ by the 1980s. Deep and surface structure were renamed D- and S-structure respectively, and generativists talked of i-language (‘internal language’) and e-language (‘external language’) rather than competence and performance. Rules specifying grammaticality in individual constructions gave way to principles, which set out conditions on grammaticality applicable to all constructions in human language, and parameters which constrain their application according to their setting in a given language. As an example, the generalization that all phrases have a head is a principle, while the head parameter or head-directionality parameter determines the position of that head with respect to complements within its phrase.
الاكثر قراءة في Semantics
اخر الاخبار
اخبار العتبة العباسية المقدسة
الآخبار الصحية
مواضيع ذات صلة
قسم الشؤون الفكرية يصدر كتاباً يوثق تاريخ السدانة في العتبة العباسية المقدسة
"المهمة".. إصدار قصصي يوثّق القصص الفائزة في مسابقة فتوى الدفاع المقدسة للقصة القصيرة
(نوافذ).. إصدار أدبي يوثق القصص الفائزة في مسابقة الإمام العسكري (عليه السلام)
