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Date: 2023-05-20
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Date: 2023-06-30
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Date: 2023-11-02
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Having considered how phrases are formed, let’s now turn to look at how clauses and sentences are formed. By way of illustration, suppose that speaker B had used the simple (single-clause) sentence italicized in (14) below to reply to speaker A, rather than the phrase used by speaker B in (10):
What’s the structure of the italicized clause produced by speaker B in (14)?
In work in the 1960s, clauses were generally taken to belong to the category S (Sentence/Clause), and the sentence produced by B in (14) would have been taken to have a structure along the following lines:
However, a structure such as (15) violates the two constituent structure principles which we posited in (12) and (13) above. More particularly, the S analysis of clauses in (15) violates the Headedness Principle (12) in that the S we are trying to help you is a structure which has no head of any kind. Likewise, the S analysis in (15) also violates the Binarity Principle (13) in that the S constituent We are trying to help you is not binary-branching but rather ternary-branching, because it branches into three immediate constituents, namely the PRN we, the T are, and the VP trying to help you. If our theory of Universal Grammar requires every syntactic structure to be a binary-branching projection of a head word, it is clear that we have to reject the S-analysis of clause structure in (15) as one which is not in keeping with UG principles.
Let’s therefore explore an alternative analysis of the structure of clauses which is consistent with the headedness and binarity requirements in (12) and (13). More specifically, let’s make the unifying assumption that clauses are formed by the same binary merger operation as phrases, and accordingly suppose that the italicized clause in (14B) is formed by merging the (present) tense auxiliary are with the verb phrase trying to help you, and then subsequently merging the resulting expression are trying to help you with the pronoun we. Since are belongs to the category T of tense auxiliary, it might at first sight seem as if merging are with the verb phrase trying to help you will derive (i.e. form) the tense projection/tense phrase/TP are trying to help you. But this can’t be right, since it would provide us with no obvious account of why speaker B’s reply in (16) below is ungrammatical:
If are trying to help you is a TP (i.e. a complete tense projection), how come it can’t be used to answer speaker A’s question in (16), since we see from sentences like (6B) that TP constituents like to help you can be used to answer questions.
An informal answer we can give is to say that the expression are trying to help you is somehow ‘incomplete’, and that only ‘complete’ expressions can be used to answer questions. In what sense is Are trying to help you incomplete? The answer is that finite T constituents require a subject, and the finite auxiliary are doesn’t have a subject in (16). More specifically, let’s assume that when we merge a tense auxiliary (= T) with a verb phrase (= VP), we form an intermediate projection which we shall here denote as (pronounced ‘tee-bar’); and that only when we merge the relevant T-bar constituent with a subject like we do we form a maximal projection – or, more informally a ‘complete TP’. Given these assumptions, the italicized clause in (14B) will have the structure (17) below:
What this means is that a tense auxiliary like are has two projections: a smaller intermediate projection