Manner of articulation

Other features relate to the manner in which a segment is produced, apart from the location of the segment’s constriction. The manner features are:

continuant (cont): the primary constriction is not narrowed so much that airflow through the oral cavity is blocked.

delayed release (del.rel): release of a total constriction is slowed so that a fricative is formed after the stop portion.

nasal (nas): the velum is lowered which allows air to escape through the nose.

lateral (lat): the mid section of the tongue is lowered at the side.

The feature [continuant] groups together vowels, glides, fricatives, and [h] as [+continuant]. Note that [continuant] is a broader group than the traditional notion “fricative” which refers to segments such as [s], [ ʃ], or [θ].

The term “fricative” generally refers to nonsonorant continuants, i.e. the class defined by the conjunction of features [+continuant, -sonorant]. Since continuants are defined as sounds where air can flow continuously through the oral cavity, nasals like [m n ŋ] are [-continuant], even though they allow continuous airflow (through the nose).

Affricates such as [tʃ , pf ] are characterized with the feature [+delayed release]. Necessarily, all affricates are [-continuant], since they involve complete constriction followed by a period of partial fricative-like constriction, and therefore they behave essentially as a kind of stop. This feature is in question, since [pf t ʃ kx ] do not act as a unified phonological class; nevertheless, some feature is needed to characterize stops versus affricates. Various alternatives have been proposed, for example that [kx ] might just be the pronunciation of aspirated [kh ] since velar [kx ] and [kh ] never seem to contrast; perhaps the feature [strident] defines [ts ] vs. [t]. The proper representation of affricates is a currently unresolved issue in phonology.

The feature [+nasal] is assigned to sounds where air flows through the nasal passages, for example [n] as well as nasalized vowels like [ã]. Liquids and fricatives can be nasalized as well, but the latter especially are quite rare. L-like sounds are characterized with the feature [lateral]. Almost all [+lateral] sounds are coronal, though there are a few reports of velar laterals. Detailed information on the phonetics and phonology of these segments is not available.

Examples of the major manners of articulation are illustrated below, for coronal place of articulation.