Thalassemias

The thalassemias are hereditary hemolytic diseases in which an imbalance occurs in the synthesis of globin chains. As a group, they are the most common single-gene disorders in humans. Normally, synthesis of the α-and β-globin chains is coordinated, so that each α-globin chain has a β-globin chain partner. This leads to the formation of α2β2 (HbA). In the thalassemias, the synthesis of either the α- or the β-globin chain is defective, and hemoglobin concentration is reduced. A thalassemia can be caused by a variety of mutations, including entire gene deletions, or substitutions or deletions of one of many nucleotides in the DNA. [Note: Each thalassemia can be classified as either a disorder in which no globin chains are produced (α⁰- or β⁰-thalassemia), or one in which some chains are synthesized but at a reduced level (α⁺- or β⁺-thalassemia).]
1. β-Thalassemias: In these disorders, synthesis of β-globin chains is decreased or absent, typically as a result of point mutations that affect the production of functional mRNA. However, α-globin chain synthesis is normal. Excess α-globin chains cannot form stable tetramers and so precipitate, causing the premature death of cells initially destined to become mature RBC. Increase in α2δ2 (HbA2) and α2γ2 (HbF) also occurs. There are only two copies of the β-globin gene in each cell (one on each chromosome 11). Therefore, individuals with β-globin gene defects have either β-thalassemia trait (β-thalassemia minor) if they have only one defective β-globin gene or β-thalassemia major (Cooley anemia) if both genes are defective (Fig. 1). Because the β-globin gene is not expressed until late in prenatal development, the physical manifestations of β-thalassemias appear only several months after birth.

Those individuals with β-thalassemia minor make some β chains and usually do not require specific treatment. However, those infants born with β-thalassemia major are seemingly healthy at birth but become severely anemic, usually during the first or second year of life, due to ineffective erythropoiesis. Skeletal changes as a result of extramedullary hematopoiesis also are seen. These patients require regular transfusions of blood. [Note: Although this treatment is lifesaving, the cumulative effect of the transfusions is iron overload. Use of iron chelation therapy has improved morbidity and mortality.] The only curative option available is hematopoietic stem cell transplantation.

Figure 1: A. β-Globin gene mutations in the β-thalassemias. B. Hemoglobin (Hb) tetramers formed in β-thalassemias.
2. α-Thalassemias: In these disorders, synthesis of α-globin chains is decreased or absent, typically as a result of deletional mutations. Because each individual’s genome contains four copies of the α-globin gene (two on each chromosome 16), there are several levels of α-globin chain deficiencies (Fig. 2 ). If one of the four genes is defective, the individual is termed a “silent” carrier of α-thalassemia, because no physical manifestations of the disease occur. If two α-globin genes are defective, the individual is designated as having α-thalassemia trait. If three α-globin genes are defective, the individual has hemoglobin H (β4) disease, a hemolytic anemia of variable severity. If all four α-globin genes are defective, hemoglobin Bart (γ4) disease with hydrops fetalis and fetal death results, because α-globin chains are required for the synthesis of HbF. [Note: Heterozygote advantage against malaria is seen in both α- and β-thalassemias.]

Figure 2: A. α-Globin gene deletions in the α-thalassemias. B. Hemoglobin (Hb) tetramers formed in α-thalassemias.