Using Lewis Electron Structures to Explain Stoichiometry

Lewis dot symbols provide a simple rationalization of why elements form compounds with the observed stoichiometries. In the Lewis model, the number of bonds formed by an element in a neutral compound is the same as the number of unpaired electrons it must share with other atoms to complete its octet of electrons. For the elements of Group 17 (the halogens), this number is one; for the elements of Group 16 (the chalcogens), it is two; for Group 15 elements, three; and for Group 14 elements four. These requirements are illustrated by the following Lewis structures for the hydrides of the lightest members of each group:

Elements may form multiple bonds to complete an octet. In ethylene, for example, each carbon contributes two electrons to the double bond, giving each carbon an octet (two electrons/bond × four bonds = eight electrons). Neutral structures with fewer or more bonds exist, but they are unusual and violate the octet rule.

Allotropes of an element can have very different physical and chemical properties because of different three-dimensional arrangements of the atoms; the number of bonds formed by the component atoms, however, is always the same. As noted at the beginning of the chapter, diamond is a hard, transparent solid; graphite is a soft, black solid; and the fullerenes have open cage structures. Despite these differences, the carbon atoms in all three allotropes form four bonds, in accordance with the octet rule.

Elemental phosphorus also exists in three forms: white phosphorus, a toxic, waxy substance that initially glows and then spontaneously ignites on contact with air; red phosphorus, an amorphous substance that is used commercially in safety matches, fireworks, and smoke bombs; and black phosphorus, an unreactive crystalline solid with a texture similar to graphite (Figure 1). Nonetheless, the phosphorus atoms in all three forms obey the octet rule and form three bonds per phosphorus atom.

Figure 1 : The Three Allotropes of Phosphorus: White, Red, and Black. ll three forms contain only phosphorus atoms, but they differ in the arrangement and connectivity of their atoms. White phosphorus contains P₄ tetrahedra, red phosphorus is a network of linked P₈ and P₉ units, and black phosphorus forms sheets of six-membered rings. As a result, their physical and chemical properties differ dramatically.

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